Introduction to health research methods : a practical guide / Kathryn H. Jacobsen.

Includes index.

Preface xiii About the Author xv Chapter 1 The Purpose and Process of Health Research 1 1.1 Types of Health Research 1 1.2 The Goal of Health Research 3 1.3 The Research Process 5 STEP 1 IDENTIFYING A STUDY QUESTION 7 Chapter 2 Selecting a General Topic 9 2.1 Brainstorming and Topic Mapping 9 2.2 Keywords 10 2.3 Exposure, Disease, Population 11 Chapter 3 Reviewing the Literature 15 3.1 Factsheets, Websites, and Informal Sources 15 3.2 Statistical Reports 16 3.3 Abstract Databases 16 3.4 Full-Text Articles 17 3.5 What Makes Research Original? 18 Chapter 4 Focusing the Research Question 21 4.1 Study Approach 21 4.2 Study Goals and Specific Objectives 22 4.3 Checklist for Success 23 Chapter 5 Assembling a Support Team 25 5.1 Collaborators, Consultants, and Friends 25 5.2 Authorship Criteria 26 5.3 Authorship Order 28 5.4 Decisions About Authorship 29 STEP 2 SELECTING A STUDY APPROACH 31 Chapter 6 Overview of Study Approaches 33 6.1 Types of Study Approaches 33 6.2 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Studies 34 6.3 Study Duration 35 6.4 Primary Focus: Exposure, Disease, or Population? 36 Chapter 7 Reviews 37 7.1 Overview 38 7.2 Selecting a Topic 39 7.3 Library Access 39 7.4 Narrative Reviews 40 7.5 Systematic Reviews 40 7.6 Meta-Analysis 40 Chapter 8 Correlational (Ecological) Studies 43 8.1 Overview 44 8.2 Data for Correlational Studies 44 8.3 Analysis: Correlation 45 8.4 Age Adjustment 46 8.5 Avoiding the Ecological Fallacy 47 Chapter 9 Case Series 49 9.1 Overview 50 9.2 Case Definitions 50 9.3 Special Considerations 51 9.4 Analysis 52 Chapter 10 Cross-Sectional Surveys 53 10.1 Overview 54 10.2 Representative Populations 54 10.3 Analysis: Prevalence 54 Chapter 11 Case-Control Studies 55 11.1 Overview 56 11.2 Finding Cases and Controls 56 11.3 Matching 57 11.4 Special Considerations 58 11.5 Analysis: Odds Ratios 59 11.6 Matched Case-Control Studies 62 Chapter 12 Cohort Studies 65 12.1 Overview 66 12.2 Types of Cohort Studies 66 12.3 Special Considerations 69 12.4 Analysis: Incidence and Risk Ratios 70 Chapter 13 Experimental Studies 77 13.1 Overview 78 13.2 Describing the Intervention 79 13.3 Defining Outcomes 79 13.4 Selecting Controls 81 13.5 Blinding 83 13.6 Randomizing 84 13.7 Ethical Considerations 85 13.8 Analysis 86 13.9 Screening and Diagnostic Tests 88 Chapter 14 Qualitative Studies 14.1 Qualitative Study Methods 91 14.2 Consensus Methods 92 14.3 Program Evaluation 93 STEP 3 DESIGNING THE STUDY AND COLLECTING DATA 95 Chapter 15 Developing a Proposal and Protocol 97 15.1 Overview of Research Plans by Study Approach 97 15.2 Resources for Research 98 15.3 Funding Sources and Budgets 99 15.4 Research Timelines and Responsibilities 100 15.5 Writing a Research Proposal 102 15.6 Writing a Research Protocol 102 15.7 Preparing for Data Collection 103 Chapter 16 Primary Studies: Selecting a Sample Population 105 16.1 Types of Research Populations 105 16.2 Target and Source Populations 106 16.3 Sample Populations 107 16.4 Study Populations 108 16.5 Populations for Cross-Sectional Surveys 108 16.6 Populations for Case-Control Studies 109 16.7 Populations for Cohort Studies 111 16.8 Populations for Experimental Studies 112 16.9 Vulnerable Populations 114 16.10 Community Involvement 114 Chapter 17 Primary Studies: Estimating Sample Size 117 17.1 Importance of Sample Size 117 17.2 Bigger Samples Are Usually Better 118 17.3 Sample Size Estimation 120 17.4 Power Estimation 121 17.5 Refining the Study Approach 123 Chapter 18 Primary Studies: Developing a Questionnaire 125 18.1 Questionnaire Design Overview 125 18.2 Questionnaire Content 126 18.3 Types of Questions 127 18.4 Anonymity 129 18.5 Types of Responses 129 18.6 Wording of Questions 131 18.7 Order of Questions 133 18.8 Layout and Formatting 134 18.9 Validation 136 18.10 Commercial Research Tools 136 18.11 Translation 136 18.12 Pilot Testing 137 Chapter 19 Primary Studies: Surveys and Interviews 139 19.1 Interviews Versus Self-Administered Surveys 139 19.2 Recruiting Methods 140 19.3 Data Recording Methods 143 19.4 Training Interviewers 144 Chapter 20 Primary Studies: Additional Assessments 147 20.1 Supplementing Self-Reported Information 147 20.2 Anthropometric Measures 147 20.3 Vital Signs 148 20.4 Clinical Examination 148 20.5 Tests of Physiological Function 149 20.6 Laboratory Analysis of Biological Specimens 149 20.7 Medical Imaging 149 20.8 Tests of Physical Fitness 150 20.9 Environmental Assessment 150 20.10 GIS (Geographic Information Systems) 150 Chapter 21 Primary Studies: Ethical Considerations 151 21.1 Beneficence, Autonomy, and Justice 151 21.2 Incentives 153 21.3 Informed Consent Statements 154 21.4 Informed Consent Process 155 21.5 Informed Consent Documentation 156 21.6 Confidentiality and Privacy 157 21.7 Cultural Considerations 158 21.8 Vulnerable Populations 159 21.9 Ethics Training and Certification 160 Chapter 22 Ethical Review and Approval 161 22.1 Ethics Committee Responsibilities 161 22.2 Warning: Ethics Review Takes Time 162 22.3 Application Materials 162 22.4 Review Process 164 22.5 Review by Multiple Committees 165 22.6 Ongoing Review 166 22.7 Conflicts of Interest 167 22.8 Is Ethics Review Required? 167 Chapter 23 Secondary Studies: Existing Data Sets 169 23.1 A Overview of Secondary Analysis 169 23.2 Publicly Available Data Sets 170 23.3 Private Data Sets 171 23.4 Clinical Records 171 23.5 Ethics Committee Review 172 Chapter 24 Tertiary Studies: Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 173 24.1 Overview of the Systematic Review Process 173 24.2 Search Strategy 174 24.3 Data Extraction 175 24.4 Meta-Analysis 176 STEP 4 ANALYZING DATA 179 Chapter 25 Data Management 181 25.1 Codebooks 181 25.2 Data Entry 183 25.3 Data Cleaning 184 25.4 Data Recoding 185 25.5 Maintaining Confidentiality 186 Chapter 26 Descriptive Statistics 187 26.1 Analytic Plan by Study Approach 187 26.2 Types of Variables 188 26.3 Measures of Central Tendency 190 26.4 Measures of Spread 191 26.5 Statistical Honesty 195 26.6 Consultation and Collaboration 195 Chapter 27 Comparative Statistics 197 27.1 Comparative Analysis by Study Approach 197 27.2 Hypotheses for Statistical Tests 198 27.3 Rejecting the Null Hypothesis 199 27.4 Interpreting p-Values 201 27.5 Interpreting Confidence Intervals 202 27.6 Measures of Association 204 27.7 Selecting an Appropriate Test 205 27.8 Comparing a Population to a Set Value 206 27.9 Comparing Independent Populations 207 27.10 Comparing Paired Data 209 Chapter 28 A Brief Guide to Advanced Health Statistics 211 28.1 Confounding and Effect Modification 211 28.2 Regression 213 28.3 Linear Regression 214 28.4 Logistic Regression 217 28.5 Dummy Variables 218 28.6 Survival Analysis 219 28.7 GIS/Spatial Analysis 220 STEP 5 REPORTING FINDINGS 221 Chapter 29 Article Structure 223 29.1 Abstract 223 29.2 Introduction 224 29.3 Methods 224 29.4 Results 225 29.5 Discussion 225 29.6 Endmatter 225 29.7 Tables and Figures 226 29.8 Writing Checklists 228 Chapter 30 Citing 231 30.1 Referring to the Scientific Literature 231 30.2 Writing in One s Own Words 233 30.3 What is Common Knowledge? 235 30.4 Avoiding Plagiarism 235 30.5 Citation Styles 236 Chapter 31 Writing Strategies 239 31.1 The Writing Process 239 31.2 Getting Started 240 31.3 Staying Motivated 241 31.4 Conquering Writer s Block 242 Chapter 32 Critically Revising 245 32.1 Does the Paper Have a \'Plot\'? 245 32.2 Structure and Content 246 32.3 Style and Clarity 247 Chapter 33 Posters and Presentations 249 33.1 Purpose of Conferences 249 33.2 Structure of Conferences 249 33.3 Submitting an Abstract 250 33.4 Preparing a Poster 251 33.5 Presenting a Poster 253 33.6 Preparing for an Oral Presentation 254 33.7 Giving an Oral Presentation 257 Chapter 34 Selecting Target Journals 259 34.1 Choosing a Target Journal 259 34.2 Aim, Scope, and Audience 260 34.3 Impact Factors 261 34.4 Journal Characteristics 261 34.5 Publication Costs 261 34.6 Online Journals 262 Chapter 35 The Submission, Review, and Publication Process 263 35.1 From Paper to Publication 263 35.2 Journal Selection 264 35.3 Manuscript Formatting 264 35.4 Cover Letter 266 35.5 Online Submission 267 35.6 Initial Review 269 35.7 External Review Results 270 35.8 Rejection 270 35.9 Revision and Resubmission 271 35.10 After Acceptance 274 Chapter 36 Why Publish? 277 36.1 Scientific Dialogue 277 36.2 Critical Feedback 278 36.3 Respect for Participants and Collaborators 278 36.4 A Step Toward Future Research 278 36.5 Personal Benefits 279 Index